The cloze test has been in use for 70 years to assess reading comprehension in several languages. It involves removing words from a text and analyzing how well participants fill in the gaps, which helps identify their reading proficiency levels. In the post-pandemic period, reading difficulties increased, making traditional exact word matching methods insufficient for accurate assessment. A study conducted at the Colégio de Aplicação of the Federal University of Sergipe confirmed that many students struggled with comprehension. This article systematically reviews studies from 2009 to 2022 that have applied the traditional cloze test to elementary school students. The findings show that most studies rely on exact word matches, including computerized versions, rather than considering alternatives such as word familiarity or grammatical class. This research highlights the need for advanced assessment methods, such as natural language processing, which can analyze responses based on lexical distance—the number of small changes needed to transform one word into another while maintaining meaning. Incorporating natural language processing allows educators to understand students’ reading abilities, leading to improved teaching strategies and literacy development.

The cloze test, also known as the cloze procedure, has been widely used to assess reading proficiency in first- and second-language contexts. Initially developed by Taylor in 1953, the cloze test was designed to evaluate the readability of texts for native English speakers. Researchers have expanded its use by adopting the cloze test as an instrument to measure proficiency in English as a foreign language (Brown 1980, 2002). Since then, it has been integrated into exams such as the Test of English as a Second Language (TOEFL) and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) assessments.

The cloze test is currently used to evaluate how well a subject comprehends the meaning of a given text. In this procedure, the subject is required to read a text and then fill in blanks with a single word, which could be functional (e.g., prepositions, articles, conjunctions), lexical (e.g., nouns, adverbs, adjectives), or even a random term (Abreu et al., 2017; Cardoso, Menezes Freitas and Freitag, 2024; Colombo and Cárnio, 2017). The primary goal of this test is to allow participants to complete a passage by supplying omitted words, thereby obtaining meaning. The foundation of the cloze test lies in the systematic omission of words from a passage of prose (Bickley et al. 1970), with participants' scores reflecting their level of comprehension. In Brazil, the cloze procedure has been effectively utilized as a key tool for assessing L1 reading comprehension.

The cloze test can be a valuable tool for teachers and researchers to identify and distinguish three readers’ profiles – frustrated, instructional, and independent (Bormuth, 1968) –based on their performance. The frustrated level refers to participants who achieved up to 44% of correct literal answers, the instructional level applies when participants scored between 45% and 57% of correct answers, and the independent level was reached by individuals who scored more than 57% of correct answers according to the original passage of the text.

These results are useful for calculating the individual performance of cloze test-takers. Once a participant has completed the test within the stipulated time, the total number of correct responses must be counted, multiplied by 100%, and divided by the total number of deleted spaces (Cardoso et al. in press).

This study investigates methods to evaluate gap-filling through exact answers (EX) (Brown, 1980), which are considered the most appropriate to the context, thereby demonstrating students’ comprehension of the text. The criteria for analyzing these responses were based on Taylor’s initial proposal (1953), which prioritizes the exact answer. Despite alternative methods, such as multiple-choice and Clozentropy (Brown, 1980; Darnell, 1968), this study focuses on the exact-answer method, within the Brazilian context, where teachers must manually check their students’ responses, making the process less time-consuming.

The primary objective of this systematic review was to identify the most validated cloze test assessment measures through empirical studies and published research, with a particular focus on Elementary School students. Almeida (2023) reported that the cloze procedure appeared in 75 of 345 studies on reading assessment over the past 29 years, highlighting the significance of investigating this procedure and its scoring methods. Three virtual databases — Scielo, Scopus, and Web of Science — were consulted for this study.

In the post-pandemic period, reading asymmetries have widened compared to the pre-pandemic era, yet the exact word criterion does not provide a fully adequate reading diagnostic; it remains the most appropriate available method. Post-pandemic applications conducted at Colégio de Aplicação of Universidade Federal de Sergipe revealed that some students were classified as having insufficient comprehension or frustration (Santos and Machado, 2022, Cardoso et al., 2024). These findings underscore the importance of encouraging the use of well-established tools such as the cloze test, which can aid education professionals in refining their practices and enhancing students’ reading proficiency levels.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. It begins with a brief introduction to the cloze procedure and the stages used to create this test. The second section provides a review of the relevant literature. Subsequently, this article outlines the methodology. The subsequent sections present the results, including the analysis of the papers selected for this study and a discussion supported by additional data. In the final section, the authors emphasize the applications of cloze tests, advocate for the broader dissemination of this practice across other regions of Brazil, and suggest the adoption of semantic similarity responses.

In 1953, journalist Wilson Taylor developed the cloze test or cloze procedure to assess children’s reading comprehension and evaluate communication effectiveness in English (Brown, 2002; Bickley; Ellington; Bickley, 1970). Since then, different science fields, including psychology, phonology, and language teaching, have adopted it as a research method either independently or in conjunction with other assessment measurements.

The cloze procedure is grounded in the Gestalt Psychology principle of “closure”, which highlights the natural human inclination to complete patterns by filling in gaps (Taylor, 1957; Oller; Conrad, 1971). In language field studies, this principle explains students' tendency to fill in the blanks of written text, drawing on their ability to understand the materials. This process involves various cognitive and linguistic factors including comprehension, general language proficiency, vocabulary, learning ability, attention, motivation, and memory (Taylor, 1957; Morais and Kolinsky, 2015).

The cloze test typically uses a prose passage of 200 to 250 words (Bickley, Ellington and Bickley, 1970; Cardoso et al., 2024). The selected text may be informational, and the test designer can adapt the content from a school textbook or news report. The construction of the text can be tailored to the social and economic background, age, and educational level of the target students depending on the researcher’s objective. The passage may be taken from any test section (Bormuth, 1968), preserving its title and initial 15–17 words. This allowed participants to read the introductory segment and contextualize the subject matter of the text. Beginning from the sixteenth word, every fifth word was omitted, requiring the participant to complete the text by filling in the blank spaces. This method aids students in understanding the task and restoring disrupted patterns (Oller and Conrad, 1971), thereby facilitating comprehension of the text.

A blank of uniform length was placed after every fourth word (Trassi et al., 2019), ensuring that all blanks were of the same size (Darnell, 1968; Brown, 1980). This standardization is crucial in preventing the participant from inferring the correct word based on the blank space, which could lead to skewed responses such as selecting longer or shorter answers. The consistent length of the blanks minimizes the potential for misleading cues, ensuring that the blank size does not influence the participant’s judgment of the most appropriate word.

Taylor’s scoring criterion adheres to a binary correct/incorrect system, where participants must fill in the blanks with exact words from the original text (Bormuth, 1968). A variation of this approach offered two answer options per blank, with only one being correct. Any responses that deviated from the original wording were considered incorrect.

Brown (1980) identified four prominent cloze test scoring methods: (1) the exact word method (EX), which only accepts the original word from the text to be correct; (2) the acceptable answer (AC), which allows any contextually appropriate word as the correct answer; (3) Clozentropy (CLNTZ-Darnell, 1968), a method that considers the frequency of native speaker responses in a pre-test and logarithmically weights acceptable answers; and (4) multiple-choice (MC), in which students are provided with alternative answers and must select the correct word for each blank. The following section outlines the methodology employed in this study.

The primary goal of this study was to identify the measurement procedures most commonly employed in Brazilian studies to assess gap-filling responses in cloze tests. The methodological approach to this study adheres to the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), as Galvão and Ricarte (2019) recommend.

The descriptors utilized for the database search included “test cloze” and “reading assessment combined with the Boolean operator AND. To validate these descriptors, the bibliometric tool, Bibioshiny, was used to generate a word cloud illustrating the frequency of terms in various cloze test studies. The search was conducted simultaneously and independently using the CAPES Journal Portal, which provides access to several databases. Based on the availability of articles related to the topic, the SciELO, Web of Science, and SCOPUS databases were selected as the primary databases for the literature search. The search criteria focused on the title, abstract, and keywords, and only the studies published in the paper were considered.

The next step involved establishing inclusion and exclusion criteria. While the inclusion criterion focused on selecting empirical studies that used the cloze test to assess reading ability and involved studies with basic education in Brazil, the exclusion criterion, on the other hand, led to the removal of studies conducted on adults, graduate and undergraduate students, or those focusing on atypical populations, such as children with dyslexia or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

Two researchers independently reviewed all relevant papers on the topic, organizing the information in an Excel table to consolidate the data and facilitate content analysis. The corpus construction process was divided into three stages: 1) study identification, 2) screening, and 3) eligibility assessment. During the initial identification stage, 42 papers were retrieved: 27 from SciELO, three from Web of Science, and 12 from SCOPUS. The papers were screened for further evaluation.

The second stage of this review was the screening process that explained the articles selected for this study. The exclusion criteria, based on paper titles, keywords, and abstracts, resulted in the removal of 15 texts, and one additional screening identified eight duplicated entries. Ultimately, 19 articles met our inclusion criteria.

The eligibility stage involved full-text review of the remaining papers. The final selection of this review comprised 19 empirical studies that applied the cloze test to assess the reading abilities of basic-education students in Brazil. These studies are presented in a table containing detailed information on published papers across the selected databases.

This systematic review corpus comprises 18 papers published over thirteen years, from 2009 to 2022. The table 1 offers an overview of this information, including the authors’ names, fields of study, number of participants, and the specific measures used in the cloze test assessments.

After analyzing the papers, it was possible to realize that the participants’ preponderance was boys and girls, ranging from 6 to 14 years of age. In two studies, the participants were up to 17 years old. One paper does not specify the students’ school level, but addresses differences in textual genre issues (Brito et al., 2022). In addition, one study mentioned students’ social conditions, noting that the participants lived in socially at-risk conditions (Santos et al., 2009).

Ten studies were conducted in public schools, five in private schools, and two in industrial institutions (Cunha and Santos, 2009; 2010). Two studies did not specify the setting of the studies (Brito et al., 2016; Brito et al., 2022).

In two separate studies, Cunha and Santos (2009, 2010) investigated the validity of evidence based on the traditional cloze test, which focuses on literal or verbatim answers. Their first study (Cunha and Santos, 2009) examined the errors in students' responses to a cloze test to identify the validity evidence in the response process. They compared the results obtained from students’ responses with their school averages and academic performance, observing that students with higher grades made more lexical errors, and those with lower grades showed more semantic errors. The authors noted evidence of validity in the response process by assessing the error-type distribution homogeneity.

In the same study, the reliability of the cloze test measure was analyzed by conducting a pilot study with 314 children, both boys and girls, from 2^nd to 4^th grade. The study demonstrated satisfactory precision indices through internal consistency analysis (following the recommendations of CFP (2003), which prescribes an index above 0,70), indicating that the gap-filling text used in the research was suitable for the sample. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.83 for the participants. Internal consistency was also analyzed by grade level, with rates of 0.85 for the 2nd year, 0,70 for the 3^rdyear, and 0,72 for the 4^th year (Cunha; Santos, 2009). There were no correlation tests between the cloze test and other instruments.

The results of this systematic review reinforce the cloze test’s sensitivity in capturing reading and writing skills, making it a valuable indicator of overall academic performance. The cloze test is a well-established instrument that can be used independently or with other measurement tools.

Most of the analyzed studies adopted the exact word as the criterion for scoring cloze test responses (Cunha, Ferraz and Santos, 2021; Cunha et al., 2020; Cunha and Santos, 2009; Cunha and Santos, 2010; Fabri et al., 2022; Joly; Piovezan, 2012; Mota et al.; 2012; Mota et al., 2009; Mota and Santos, 2009; Mota and Santos, 2014; Santos and Fernandes, 2016; Santos, Morais and Lima, 2018; Santos and Oliveira, 2010; Santos, Suehiro and Vendemiatto, 2009; Suehiro and Magalhães, 2014; Suehiro and Santos, 2015; Trassi, Oliveira and Inácio, 2019).

There is a tendency to adopt the exact word criterion for scoring; however, a recent study by Brito et al. (2022) differs from others in that it does not specify the criterion used to score the responses. Instead, the researchers adopted a computerized correction made by the Coh-Metrix-Port 2.0. This study aimed to analyze the characteristics of words, syntactic structure, and cohesion elements in the Cloze Reading Comprehension Test (TCCL), comparing its two parts: narrative text (TCCL-N) and expository text (TCCL-E), using the Coh-Metrix software. This program allows for the analysis of cohesion, coherence, and difficulty in understanding a text (Brito, Ribeiro and Seabra, 2022) using Natural Language Processing resources and tools. The results showed that TCCL-E is slightly more complex than TCC-N, as supported by the literature, and the authors emphasized the importance of considering reader characteristics when determining text difficulty.

Although Santos and Fernandes’s research in 2016 was the only study conducted across all five Brazilian regions, most participants were from the southeast region, particularly São Paulo, the most populous state (IBGE, 2010). Of the 19 papers analyzed, eight were from São Paulo (Santos et al.; 2009; Cunha and Santos, 2009; Santos and Oliveira, 2010; Cunha and Santos, 2010; Suehiro and Santos, 2015; Santos et al., 2018; Cunha et al., 2020), Minas Gerais (Mota et al., 2009; Mota and Santos, 2009; Mota et al., 2012; Mota and Santos, 2014; Cunha et al., 2021), and Paraná (Trassi et al., 2019; Fabri et al., 2022). Only one study was from Bahia (Suehiro and Magalhães, 2014), in the northeast region, and none were from the North or Midwest regions. Three papers did not specify the location of their study (Joly and Piovezan, 2012; Colombo and Cárnio, 2018; Brito et al., 2022).

The field that produced the most studies on the cloze test was psychology with 16 papers. One study was published in speech-language pathology (Colombo and Cárnio, 2018), one in education (Fabri et al., 2022), and one in the humanities (Joly and Piovezan, 2012).

Despite their specific objectives, each study used the cloze test as a reading assessment, applying it to examine the relationship between reading comprehension and other linguistic abilities such as morphological and phonological awareness (Suehiro; Santos, 2015; Mota; Santos, 2009; Mota et al., 2009; Mota et al., 2012) and metatextual awareness (Cunha et al., 2021).

The cloze test has also been used to assess writing ability (Cunha and Santos, 2010; Santos and Fernandes, 2016; Suehiro and Magalhães, 2014) as well as other factors related to education, such as learning motivation (Santos et al., 2018), learning strategies, verbal reasoning (Trassi et al., 2019), and school development (Colombo and Cárnio, 2018). Furthermore, the latter study aimed to create a tool for assessing textual reading comprehension. It was the only study to consult linguists to validate the cloze tests before applying them.

A few studies have used the cloze test exclusively to analyze reading without relating it to other skills, such as Joly and Piovezan’s (2012) study, which aimed to evaluate their Computerized Reading Program Strategy (Programa Informatizado de Leitura Estratégica-PILE) (Joly, 2008).

This systematic review revealed that the analyzed studies consistently adopted exact answer scoring criteria, including those using computerized tests. Clozentropy or multiple-choice scoring methods have not been mentioned in previous papers.

The findings of this systematic review reinforce the consolidation of the cloze test in Brazil as a tool for assessing reading proficiency particularly in research that focuses on primary and elementary school students. It also underscores that the psychology and phonology areas have produced more research on the cloze procedure than the language studies field. Teachers, linguists, psychologists, and other professionals can work together to examine the development of these tests, ensuring that they are appropriately aligned with the participants’ age, educational level, and knowledge base.

Currently, such research is concentrated in southeastern Brazil. Expanding these studies to other Brazilian states could provide a broader understanding of reading difficulties across the country, particularly in the Covid-19 post-pandemic context, where reading asymmetries have widened. Furthermore, the “exact word” criterion used in many cloze tests limits the accuracy of reading diagnosis as it narrows the range of acceptable responses and excludes answers with semantic similarity, such as synonyms. Despite these limitations, one piece of information should be highlighted. The research results assume that it is a reliable measure to assess reading comprehension and predicts students' performance in other skills related to reading activity.

Natural language processing techniques could be employed, utilizing measures of lexical distance, to better assess comprehension in contexts with low reading proficiency. Lexical distances, defined as the “minimum number of insertions, deletions or substitutions of a single character needed to transform one word into the other”,[1] could be used to measure responses that follow the same grammatical class or semantic field as the expected word, revealing alternative responses possibilities (Gois et al., 2025).

Previous studies reinforce the validity of the cloze test as an instrument for measuring reading comprehension. Due to its low cost and ease of application, it is a highly practical tool for diagnosing reading proficiency, especially in the post-pandemic context, where performance rates have declined, raising concerns among education networks and challenging teachers to address this issue. Mapping how the cloze technique has been applied in Brazil contributes to the development of new analytical approaches, particularly those based on natural language processing (Gois et al., 2025) and novel gap types, such as verbal aspect (Santos, 2025), ultimately aiding in the reduction of reading asymmetries.

We thank the CAPES for the master’s scholarship granted to one of the authors, which partially provided financial support for this study, that is part of “Impactos da Pandemia de COVID-19 na linguagem da criança e do adulto: foco no desenvolvimento e na aprendizagem da leitura” project (Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Language of Children and Adults: Focus on Development and Reading Learning), funded by Programa de Desenvolvimento da Pós-Graduação (PDGP) - Impactos da Pandemia (Graduate Development Program - Impacts of the Pandemic) CAPES 12/2021, and is supported by other federal institutions. At the Universidade Federal de Sergipe, the project is developed through the subproject “Linguagem e Emoções no Cenário Educacional Pós-Pandêmico: Tecnologia de Avaliação e Monitoramento: (Language and Emotions in the Post-Pandemic Educational Scenario: Assessment and Monitoring Technology), funded by FAPITEC/SE/SEDUC 09/2022.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Statement of Data Availability

Data sharing does not apply to this article, as no new data was created or analyzed in this study.

Funding Sources

This article is one of the activities developed during the master’s degree of one of the authors, which was carried out with financial support from the CAPES through a scholarship.

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.25189/2675-4916.2025.V6.N2.ID787.R